Sosa's virtue epistemology.
| Autor | Kvanvig, Jonathan L. |
| Cargo | Texto en ingl |
Ernest Sosa is the father of modern virtue epistemology, having first introduced such an approach near the end of "The Raft and the Pyramid" (Sosa 1980). His most recent, and most developed, version of the view is contained in A Virtue Epistemology (2007). The view relies on a distinction between animal and reflective knowledge, attempting to understand both kinds of knowledge in terms of the notion of apt belief. An apt belief is, according to Sosa, one that is true because competent, and it is a virtue epistemology because of this use of the notion of competence. To have a competence is to have an intellectual virtue, and thus knowledge is, at bottom, understood in terms of the intellectual virtues.
As with other versions of virtue epistemology, this version faces several kinds of problems, and here I will focus on two of them. I will press a point I have made elsewhere, that virtue epistemology does not present a complete answer to the problem of the value of knowledge. (1) In order to have provided a complete answer to the problem of the value of knowledge, any given virtue epistemology will have to clarify the nature of knowledge in terms of the virtues, and then explain how virtuous true belief is more valuable than true belief itself. I have argued that the latter point is correct (that a true belief that is a display of an intellectual virtue is more valuable than a true belief that is not), but I have argued as well that virtue epistemologies fail to provide an adequate account of the nature of knowledge.
1 will press this point regarding the nature of knowledge through two standard Gettier examples here. The first is the Fake Barn case and the second is the Tom Grabit case. (2) I will argue that Sosa's latest virtue epistemology fails to handle either case acceptably, and that, as a result, cannot explain the value that knowledge has over that of the sum of any of its proper subparts. I take up each case in the next two sections.
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The Fake Barn Case
The fake barn case runs as follows. You are driving through some rural area, perhaps some part of Wisconsin. The locals, bored with ordinary farm life, have decided to play a trick on visitors, and so have tried to replace all the barns in the area with fake barns. They inadvertently leave one real barn in place. As you are driving through the countryside, you take notice of various objects: houses, cars, horses, cows, pigs, fields of corn and other crops, etc. You only notice one barn-like object, and it happens to be the only real barn in the locale. You believe it is a barn, and your belief is an ordinary perceptual one, and one that is true. But because of the activity of the locals, you do not know that it is a barn.
At first glance, this example is a problem for Sosa-style virtue epistemology. The person in question possesses an intellectual virtue: he or she is competent perceptually, and is using this competence in conditions that are appropriate for its exercise. The result of such a display of competence is a true belief. It thus appears to be a case of virtuous true belief, but not a case of knowledge.
A careful reading of Sosa's claims about knowledge may make one wonder whether there is room for maneuvering to avoid this first impression. Sosa says, "We can distinguish between a belief's accuracy, i.e., its truth; its adroitness, i.e., its manifesting epistemic virtue or competence; and its aptness, i.e., its being true because competent" (2007, p. 23). One might wonder whether this appeal to the because of relation can help avoid the fake barn case, and it is worth noting that one of the primary defenders of Sosa-style virtue epistemology, John Greco, makes just such an appeal. Concerning the barn belief, Greco says,
the belief is not true because it is formed from a virtue. Put more carefully, the belief s being so formed does not explain why S has a true belief rather than a false belief. On the contrary, S believes the truth because she happens (accidentally) to be looking at the one real barn in the area. If she had been looking anywhere else nearby, excellent perception or no, she would have a false belief. (Greco 2009, p. 318)
The idea, then, is to distinguish between a case in which a true belief arises out of one s cognitive abilities or virtues or competences and a case in which a belief is true because of the display of competence in question. Both could legitimately be called examples of virtuous true belief, but, according to Greco, only the second is to be identified with knowledge.
I have argued against this proposal elsewhere (Kvanvig 2009), and it is interesting to note that Sosa agrees that this proposal will not work. One of the difficulties with Greco's proposal is the problem of testimonial knowledge in young children. In the fake barn case, Greco focuses on the accidental character of being correct, and on the counterfactual point that focusing on a different part of the landscape would have resulted in a false belief. Being right, in the barn case, owes too much to other factors, Greco holds, to legitimately be creditable as an achievement to the believer because of a display of an ability or competence. It is precisely at this point that the problem of testimonial knowledge is most pressing, and it is worth noting that Sosa spends considerable time in A Virtue Epistemology arguing for the view that partial credit for true belief is credit enough and achievement enough to count: "Testimonial knowledge can therefore take the form of a belief whose correctness is attributable to a complex social competence only partially seated in that individual believer" (Sosa 2007, p. 97).
If so, however, the fake barn cognizer is going to pass scrutiny as well, as Sosa recognizes. Sosa holds that the fake barn belief is, in fact, an apt belief: it is a belief that is true because competent. If testimony early in life leads to beliefs that are true because of the competences of young children, in spite of the fact that the total explanation must appeal to competences and practices that reach far beyond these individual competences, then a belief about a barn in the landscape must be judged similarly. It too is a belief that is true because of the competences of the cognizer in question.
Sosa thus parts company with other defenders of Sosa-style virtue epistemology. Though he does not explicitly connect his discussion of testimony with the fake barn case, the connection is fairly immediate and direct, and fits well with what he does say explicitly about the fake barn case. Surprising as it may seem, Sosa grants that the belief in question is an instance of apt belief --"surprising" because such an admission appears to doom his virtue epistemology. Sosa believes, however, that the language of demise is premature, for he thinks that the standard response to the fake barn case, the response that denies that the cognizer in question knows that the object in question is a barn, is mistaken. His response to the fake barn case, then, is not that of crafting an account of knowledge immune to this counterexample, but rather to explain away the sense that the true belief in question isn't knowledge. He says, in a footnote,
Our account does help to bring out, however, how not all Gettier cases are created equal. In some cases, such as Gettier s two actual examples, and such as Lehrer's Nogot/Havit case, the subject does not attain so much as animal knowledge: apt belief, belief that gets it right in a way sufficiently attributable to the exercise of a competence in its proper conditions. However in other similar cases, what the subject lacks is rather reflective knowledge. Our kaleidoscope perceiver, in Lecture 2, is a case in point. The Ginet/Goldman barns example arguably belongs with the kaleidoscope case. (Sosa 2007, p. 96, fn. 1)
The strategy is thus to explain away, rather than accommodate, the fake barn case. Goldman and others are mistaken in thinking that the cognizer in question lacks knowledge. According to Sosa, the reason for the mistake is that they are confusing animal knowledge with reflective knowledge.
We must ask, then, about this distinction and how it helps with the barn example. Sosa's...
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